Further Insights into Each School
Orthodox Schools (Āstika Darshanas) – Vedic Traditions
1. Nyāya (School of Logic)
Its main text is the Nyāya Sūtras by Gautama (Aksapada).
Introduces the concept of "Pramāṇa" (valid means of knowledge), including perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony.
Used extensively in debates to establish truths through logical reasoning.
2. Vaiśeṣika (School of Atomism)
Recognizes Dravya (substance) as the fundamental reality, consisting of atoms (paramāṇu).
Explains how the universe is built from a combination of these atoms.
Later merged with Nyāya, forming the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school.
3. Sāṃkhya (Dualistic School of Metaphysics)
Describes 25 Tattvas (principles) that explain reality, from the pure consciousness (Purusha) to the material world (Prakriti).
Rejects God (Ishvara), making it one of the earliest atheistic schools within Hinduism.
4. Yoga (Discipline for Spiritual Realization)
Outlined in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.
Describes the eight limbs (Ashtanga Yoga):
1. Yama (Ethical Restraints)
2. Niyama (Self-discipline)
3. Asana (Postures)
4. Pranayama (Breath Control)
5. Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses)
6. Dharana (Concentration)
7. Dhyana (Meditation)
8. Samadhi (Ultimate Absorption)
Aims at achieving liberation (kaivalya), where the soul detaches from material reality.
5. Mīmāṃsā (School of Vedic Interpretation)
Purva Mīmāṃsā (by Jaimini) focuses on Vedic rituals, dharma, and karma.
Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta) shifts focus to spiritual wisdom and self-realization.
Believes Vedic rituals bring material prosperity and spiritual progress.
6. Vedānta (Ultimate Knowledge of the Vedas)
Derived from the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita.
Three major sub-schools:
Advaita Vedānta (Non-Dualism) – Shankaracharya; only Brahman exists, the world is an illusion.
Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-Dualism) – Ramanujacharya; the soul is part of Brahman but retains individuality.
Dvaita (Dualism) – Madhvacharya; the soul and Brahman are distinct, and Bhakti (devotion) leads to liberation.
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Heterodox Schools (Nāstika Darshanas) – Non-Vedic Traditions
1. Cārvāka (Materialist School)
Rejects afterlife, karma, and God.
Encourages enjoying worldly pleasures (Loka-Yātra).
Criticizes religious dogmas and rituals as exploitation.
2. Buddhism (Path of Enlightenment)
Founded by Gautama Buddha.
Rejects the authority of the Vedas but emphasizes morality and meditation.
Core Teachings:
Four Noble Truths
Eightfold Path
Divisions:
Theravāda – Emphasizes self-discipline and monastic life.
Mahayāna – Emphasizes compassion and Bodhisattvas.
Vajrayāna – Incorporates esoteric practices and rituals.
3. Jainism (Path of Non-Violence and Liberation)
Founded by Mahavira (24th Tirthankara).
Five main vows (Mahavratas):
1. Ahimsa (Non-violence)
2. Satya (Truthfulness)
3. Asteya (Non-stealing)
4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
5. Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness)
Two major sects:
Digambara – Believes monks should renounce clothes.
Shvetambara – Monks wear white robes.
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Other Philosophical Traditions in India
1. Kashmir Shaivism (Non-dualistic Shaivism)
Flourished in Kashmir, based on Trika philosophy.
Key text: Shiva Sutras.
Believes everything is a manifestation of Shiva.
2. Bhakti Movements (Philosophy of Devotion)
Emphasized personal devotion (bhakti) over rituals.
Key saints: Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
Inspired major spiritual traditions, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism.
3. Tantra Philosophy
Explores esoteric rituals, meditation, and energy-based practices.
Popular in Shaiva, Shakta, and Vajrayana Buddhist traditions.
4. Sikh Philosophy
Developed by Guru Nanak and subsequent Sikh Gurus.
Rejects caste, idol worship, and ritualism.
Central text: Guru Granth Sahib.
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Conclusion
Indian philosophy is a vast intellectual tradition that spans from materialism (Cārvāka) to pure monism (Advaita Vedānta). It covers logic (Nyāya), metaphysics (Sāṃkhya), devotion (Bhakti), meditation (Yoga), and ritualism (Mīmāṃsā). These schools have deeply influenced Indian culture, religious practices, and modern spiritual movements worldwide.
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